William Morris Davis

• His Early Life:
• William Morris Davis was born on 12 February 1850, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His father, Edward M. Davis, was a businessman and his mother’s name was Maria Mott Davis. His maternal grandmother, Lucretia Mott, was a women’s rights and anti-slavery activist.
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• As a boy, he was not much interested in sports, rather he was more absorbed in his studies. For many years he was homeschooled by his mother; this laid the foundation of a flawless vocabulary and his firmness for accurate writings by his students.
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• He was a bright student and at the age of nineteen, he graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree from Harvard University. He received a Master of Engineering degree a year later in 1870.

His Career:

• William Morris Davis was an American geographer, geologist, and meteorologist, who founded the science of geomorphology—the study of landforms.
•  He is often referred to as the “Father of American Geography”. He began his career as a meteorologist with the National Observatory at Córdoba, Argentina, and in three years, he acquired a position with Harvard University, where he continued his employment for the next 36 years. 
• Post-retirement, he became a visiting lecturer to several universities, dedicated many hours to writing and field studies, and conducted in-depth researches of coral reefs and coral islands; the learnings of which were published in ‘The Coral Reef Problem’ (1928). During his lifetime, he published more than 500 works on Geography.
• William Morris Davis died on February 5, 1934,

His Influence in Meteorology:

• Davis studied meteorological phenomena, along with geological and geographical issues. This made his work much more valuable in that he could tie in one object of study to others.
• By doing this, he was able to show the correlation between the meteorological happenings that took place and the geological and geographical issues that were affected by them. This provided those who followed his work with much more information than otherwise available.
• While Davis was a meteorologist, he studied many other aspects of nature. Therefore, he addressed meteorological issues from a nature-based perspective. He became an instructor at Harvard teaching geology.

The Melting of Permafrost

Permafrost is a layer that is made up from soil, gravel, sand, or sediment that has been frozen continuously for a minimum of two years. Permafrost makes up 24% of the exposed surface of the Northern Hemisphere. it can found in the Arctic regions of Siberia, Canada, Greenland, and Alaska. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimate that by the mid-21st Century, permafrost in the Northern Hemisphere will decline by 20-35%.

When it melts down, the organic matter within it begins to decompose and release carbon and methane among other gases which exacerbates the greenhouse effect and global warming. In addition to releasing carbon and methane upon thawing, permafrost also releases potentially dangerous substances like mercury and anthrax. Mercury can not only pollute the ocean but disrupt the ecosystems with it and cause serious harm to the food chain there. Mercury is also toxic to humans and can cause death. Thawed Permafrost can also expose people to anthrax, this especially happens in Siberia.

The melting of permafrost also affects coastal cities and areas. Melting permafrost can cause a rise in sea level which can increase the severity of hurricane flooding into coastal areas. The damage of Coastal Cities/Areas can also affect those areas financially. The Federal Emergency Management Agency is left to dole out billions of dollars to help the affected areas rebuild and recuperate but these areas choose not to take precautions and cause the Federal Government to have to pay for the damages again. This places a bigger burden on the taxpayer because the government raises taxes to compensate for the amount of money spent on repairing the damaged coastal areas.

Arctic areas built on top of layers of permafrost are affected an inordinate amount by its melting.As the permafrost in arctic cities thaws, the grounds begin to buckle, sink, and decompose as the temperatures continue to rise rapidly. In Canada, Nunavut and Russia, the permafrost issue has led to the destruction of many dozens of homes that were built atop the grounds. 

One of the best ways humanity can do to prevent further melting of permafrost is to reduce our carbon footprint. Reducing our carbon footprint would help slow the Greenhouse Effect. One notable way to do so is investing in energy-efficient products or alternative energy sources. Another way of reducing our carbon footprint is supporting Climate-friendly businesses, legislation, and policies.

Bhola Cyclone

Bhola Cyclone Formation

The Bhola cyclone began with the help of a leftover tropical storm that was breaking up in the Pacific Ocean. This contributed to a tropical depression that formed November 8th, 1970 in the Bay of Bengal. It traveled north from there toward east Pakistan and got stronger. By November 11th the wind speed has reached between 85-90 miles per hour. It made landfall the afternoon of November 12th. 

The Cyclone flooded densely populated lowland plains of the Ganges Delta and wiped out hundreds of villages overnight on November 12th during an above-average lunar high tide. The storm surged from 20 feet to 35 feet on the Ganges Delta. People were interviewed after the event, and they described horrific scenes of watching their children being swept away by the strong current. 

Government officials said that the majority of the dead from the impact of the cyclone were women and children because they were not strong enough to hold on to trees when the water came. They predicted that the water knocked over the weak ones and drowned them. The average wind speed was 140 miles per hour. Coastal areas like Tazumuddin were destroyed, with half the population missing or were dead. 85% of homes in the area were affected by the Bhola, they were destroyed or severely damaged along the coast.

The aftermath was almost worse than the initial impact. Very little to no food, the water was contaminated so either people were dying from dehydration or from diseases, and people were dying from infection. A lot of death could have been prevented if a message was broadcasted out on the radio. However, there was no signal sent out over the radio.

1932 Cuba Hurricane

The 1932 Cuba Hurricane is also known as the Camaguey Hurricane or the Hurricane of Santa Cruz del Sur. This is known as one the most intense hurricanes of the 20th century. The hurricane started forming on October 30, 1932 and the hurricane dissipated on November 14, 1932. The storm reached hurricane strength on November 2nd, 1932. On November 6th, 1932, the tropical cyclone reached its peak of intensity as a category 5 hurricane. This hurricane was the deadliest in the history of Cuba. There was an estimated 3,033 casualties and $40 million dollars in damage because of the hurricane. The highest record wind speed was 175 mph for about one minute of the hurricane. The hurricane also affected areas like the Bahamas, Jamaica and a little bit of South America. 

The picture shows the a bay in Cuba that got absolutely destroyed by the hurricane. 

This picture shows the areas of the Caribbean that got most affected. It shows what areas got the strongest amount of wind which you can also tell which areas got the most amount of damage.

2019 HURRICANE DORIAN Blog

2019 Hurricane Dorian:

The Deadliest Cyclone Disaster in Bahamas History

By Eric Romero

Fall - Meteorology - Tuorto

First, what is a cyclone? A cyclone is a system of low pressure containing winds that spin inwards. Cyclones in the Atlantic tend to follow a pattern. Most of the hurricanes come from the same place in the world. There's a point off the coast of West Africa near Cape Verde where dry, hot air from the Sahara desert meets with the cool, moist air from the south. This is what happened on August 24, 2019, Saharan dust forming what is known as the worst hurricane in the history of the Bahamas.   

The Stages of Dorian

Hurricane Dorian was first known as Tropical Depression 5. Hurricane moved into in the Central Atlantic and moved towards the Lesser Antilles, gaining strength in its path there.  On August 28, Dorian was categorized as a hurricane while on August 31, gaining a Category 4 intensity. On September 1, Dorian reached Category 5 intensity, with maximum sustained winds of 185 mph, and a minimum central pressure of 910 MB while reaching into Elbow Cay, Bahamas.  

Hurricane Dorian's Path

Hurricane Dorian

On August 24, 2019, the worst natural disaster in the history of the Bahamas started to form. 61 deaths were recorded on this date. The hurricane made a disaster worth $7 billion in damage. Hurricane Dorian struck the Abaco Islands on September 1 with maximum sustained winds of 185 mph. Dorian went on to strike Grand Bahama at a similar intensity, staying just north of the territory with constant winds. The damage to these islands was catastrophic. Most structures were flattened or swept to sea, and at least 70,000 people were left homeless. After its damages through the Bahamas, Dorian proceeded along the coasts of the Southeastern United States and Atlantic Canada, leaving behind considerable damage and economic losses in those regions.

 

View Of Hurricane Dorian 

Before and After

The Impacts

Hurricane Dorian knocked out the power, water, telecommunications, and sewage service on the Abacos and the Grand Bahama Island, which made the search for clean water more intense due to seawater floods.  The floods caused 45% of homes on both islands to be completely destroyed. After Dorian, several tornadoes happened in South Carolina and North Carolina which caused floods and destruction.  When Dorian reached Canada, it damaged 80% of Atlantic Canada, with floods and destruction of buildings,  making damage worth $78.9 million. As the Hurricane had damaged or destroyed a majority of the Humane Society of Grand Bahama and killed many of the animals in its care, a GoFundMe was created in order to help renovate and aid the organization's locations. Surviving animals were airlifted to the United States in order to disperse them to other shelters while the organization was stabilized.

Resources: 

https://www.wptv.com/weather/hurricane/before-and-after-hurricane-dorian-photo-slider-shows-devastation

https://nypost.com/2019/09/01/hurricane-dorian-strengthens-into-catastrophic-category-5-storm/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T-jEj8Bh5Kc

https://www.weather.gov/mhx/Dorian2019

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Dorian

https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/09/death-destruction-stalks-bahamas-wake-hurricane-dorian-190906022923964.html

https://www.businessinsider.com/what-causes-hurricanes-irma-harvey-jose-sahara-africa-easterly-atlantic-2017-9

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_Hurricane_Dorian_in_The_Bahamas

https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasa2explore/48678010111

https://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2019/09/03/heres-what-it-looked-like-inside-eye-hurricane-dorian/

El Ninos

El ninos are a type of irregular weather phenomenon that effect the equatorial pacific region and on every few years. The El Nino is the early stage of what is referred to as the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO). An El nino will occur when the surface temp. of sea water in the Pacific rises. El ninos cause long-lasting climate problems all over the world. In summary in an El nino the warm surface water will deepen the thermocline which halts the process of upwelling in the ecosystem. The eventual long lasting layer of warm water super-charges tropical storms and other systems.

The Dust Bowl

Joseph Amado

November 18,2019

Meteorology

"The Dust Bowl"

The dust bowl happened on April 14, 1935, by  and was found by President Franklin D. Roosevelt It was noted that The dust bowl originated in an area between Dakota,Nebraska,Kansas,Oklahoma,Texas,Colorado and new Mexico This area where the dust bowl was founded was called a “desert” to people who passed by the area, which led to people to settle there due to the fact there was so much farm space and so much vast land they stayed there. Which led many to their deaths because they all waited for the rain to come for their crops to grow and then the dust bowl came. This drought made the precipitation in that area decrease by 25%The dust bowl also wasn't just a drought it was also a nationwide catastrophe that led to many minor “mini storms”(as i call them) Known as black blizzards. Even though there was a “depresion” It wasn't as depressing as encountering this. This storm “ was created due to the  millions of tons of dirt were swept from the parched, barren fields and swirled up into the air. These black blizzards would sweep past people houses and would make the area around it render ably not visible, but those who weren't lucky enough to stay indoors would die of “dust pneumonia”.These so called black blizzards would come and go and this phenomena would last 10 years. The dust bowl did not impact The Northern Plains, as they  weren't so badly damaged/affected but the drought, dust, and agricultural decline were felt there as well. The agricultural devastation helped to lengthen the Great Depression, whose effects were felt worldwide.  In the end the dust bowl had left a massive change in american and the entire worlds history.

Meteorology - The Great Blizzard of 1888 Mrs. Tuorto Fall 2019 Presentation

The Great Blizzard of 1888:

The Greatest Blizzard in Modern History
By Sergio Villar

2019 - Fall - Meteorology - Tuorto

Throughout recent history, with rising temperatures, our incredibly hot Summers have occupied our minds. Glacial meltings and increasing global temperatures, all these things attributed to heat. But what of the great snowstorms and the low temperatures that have previously plagued the globe? What of the days in history when the concrete jungles became snow boxes? What of the 'Great Blizzard of 1888?"

What creates a blizzard?

1. Cold air (below freezing) is needed to make snow.

2. Moisture is needed to form clouds and precipitation.

3. Warm, rising air is needed to form clouds and cause precipitation.

“For a blizzard to form, warm air must rise over cold air.” 

Warm air + cold air > brought together = front formation and precipitation. Warm air can rise to form clouds and blizzard snows as it flows up a mountainside.

Quick shots of snow, sleet, and freezing snow can develop into a blizzard.

What Classifies a Blizzard:

The Great Blizzard

It was on March 11th when cold Arctic air collided with Gulf air from the South and temperatures drastically plunged, resulting in the rain turning to snow and winds reaching hurricane-level speeds. The gusts reached 85 miles per hour in NYC. A total recording of 55 inches of snow was dumped across New York. $20 million dollars in damages were caused.

All residents who woke up only saw the heavy blanket of snow on the roads and streets and atop their cars and homes. There were an estimated 15,000 residents trapped in trains, and residents who attempted to get to work despite the snow were met with stranded and stuck trains. 

After the snowstorm, a resulting 55 inches of snow buried the city. The freezing temperatures froze the river (The East River) between Manhattan and Queens. Residents attempted to cross it, but the tides regrettably changed and the ice began to break.

There were a total of 400 deaths resulting from the freezing temperatures, ice breaking and stranding river crossers, and heat running out. 

Along the Atlantic coast, hundreds of boats were sunk by rough waves and the high winds. About 100 seamen died.

Animals froze to death at farms as well.

Keene, New Hampshire, received 36 inches; 

New Haven, Connecticut, got 45 inches; 

Troy, New York, was hit by 55 inches of snow over 3 days

This graph by the National Weather Service shows the 'greatest snowstorms' in Albany, New York from 1884-1885. Of course, March 11-14 (the days of the blizzard) is the greatest to have occurred.

The Aftermath

After the blizzard, it was realized that leaving water systems above ground (and gas lines) could be unbeneficial and result in future incidents. And so, the blizzard resulted in the reformation of transit systems which are actually still used today.
So, due in part to the blizzard, as damaging and deadly as it was, reformations came as a result and the betterment of transit resulted in improved living environments for residents of New York.

Hurricane Katrina

Hurricane Katrina

Hurricane Katrina was a powerful Category 5 that hit Florida and the Gulf Coast in late August of 2005. The highest winds were 175 mph and the hurricane caused 1,836 casualties. The storm formed over the southern Bahamas on August 23, 2005, as Tropocal Depression 12. It quickly became a Category 1 hurricane and hit Florida, though not causing much damage. It then moved to the Gulf of Mexico, where it gained speed and intensity from a loop current. It was redirected and now headed toward Louisiana. It made landfall in Louisiana on August 29. Cities alll along the Gulf, especially New Orleans, were impacted the worst. The storm surge was about 25 feet high and caused 50 foot waves. Though the storm cause a lot of damage, the aftermath was even more devastating. The storm broke the levees along most of the gulf states, leading to massive flooding. To add to the mass flooding, the government was extremely slow to meet the needs of the people affected by the storm. The storm caused 108 billion dollars in damage, making it the costliest storm to ever hit the U.S.

The Peshtigo Fire

The Peshtigo Fire

The Peshtigo fire was one of the US worst forest fire that took place in northeastern Wisconsin during October 8, 1871 and lasted until October 10, 1871, the fire also took place in the same day as the Great Chicago fire, and, even though the Peshtigo Fire was more severe it was overshadow by the Chicago fire. Nobody knows how the fire started but the high temperature, prolonged drought, and introduction to industrial practice and extensive farming were major factors that could have caused a spark. The fire came from nowhere and was fast that some survivors said it was like a fire cyclone. It destroyed the town of Peshtigo in a hour and people with out any warning tried to flee towards the river. The fire destroyed about !.2 million acres, claiming 1,200-2,400 lives, and Estimated damage cost was 169 million dollars. The fire destroyed 16 other towns and skipped over Green Bay to destroy part of Door and Kewaunee.

The Year Without A Summer

The Year Without A Summer


        Over centuries ago in 1815, Mount Tambora located in Indonesia erupted in one of the world's most powerful volcanic eruptions. This resulted in thousands of deaths on the island of Sumbawa.


1816 became known as “The year without a summer”  because suddenly unusually cold, wet conditions swept Europe and North America. The cold temperatures of 1816 would not have been possible if it was not for the eruption of Mount Tambora. The volcanic eruption claimed 10,000 lives either directly killing the victims or indirectly by the tsunamis the eruption created. An additional 80,000 people died from disease that spread.
The eruption pumped out an incredible amount of sulfur into the stratosphere, which oxidized and created sulfate aerosols. These volcanic aerosols reduce net shortwave radiation causing; widespread, long-lasting surface cooling. Reduction in global rainfall changes in the large-scale circulation of both ocean and atmosphere. Those Sulfate Aerosols caused the long term surface cooling, which caused the global temperature to drop a whopping three degrees Celsius.
The Ash and gas spewed into the atmosphere blocked out sunlight or sun altogether for more than an entire year. 1816 broke the record for being the coldest year in the last 250 years. Mostly affected Asia, Europe, and North America Crop and agricultural failure causes the price of food to jump across the globe and death of livestock and world wide famine.
Heavy snowfall and frost persisted through the summer months of 1816 destroying most of the crops in Asia North America and Europe. As famine takes hold, the livestock dies in masses and the people begin to follow soon after. 
Different types of illness spread and the sulfur in the air causes lung infections. The monsoon season is altered causing flooding in china and droughts in Africa. The widespread starvation caused thousands around the world to migrate.

Johannes Kepler

Johannes Kepler

Johannes Kepler was born on December 25, 1571, in Weil der Stadt, Württemberg, and he died at the age of 58 on November 15, 1630, in Regensburg Germany. He was a well known German astronomer who was well known for his three laws of planetary motion.

• Kepler's First Law of Planetary Motion: All planet move around the sun in a elliptical orbit.
• Kepler's Second Law of Planetary Motion: The speed of the planet increases as it is near to the sun, and decreases as it moves away from the sun.
• Kepler's Third Law of Planetary Motion: How long it takes a planet to revolve around the sun is equal to the distance of the sun.

Other than those three laws, Kepler was also known for many other things like giving a correct account on how vision works, created a Keplerian telescope, which is an refracting telescope use for observation which has a positive objectives lens and positive eye piece which gives an inverted image and a wide field of view.

Theodore Fujita

Theodore Fujita was one of the most important meteorologists to ever live. He was responsible for discovering many meteorological terms and has done elaborate studies on tornadoes and how much damage they cause. He did most of his studies using the F scale or ( Fujita scale) that ranks tornadoes on how strong the winds are and how much damage they caused and he was the inventor of the F scale. He is well known for his handwritten maps of tornadoes and the directions they take. Theodore Fujita is well known in the University of Chicago for being a brilliant professor and an amazing meteorologist.

The Hurricane of 1938

The Hurricane of 1938

Also called “The Great New England Hurricane” and “The Long Island Express,” the Hurricane of 1938 was a powerful category 3 hurricane the hit the East Coast, mainly Long Island and New England. The hurricane developed out of tropical storms near Cape Verde, and took the normal route of a hurricane: across the Atlantic Ocean and into the Caribbean Sea. The U.S Weather Bureau projected it to hit Florida and run up the coast. An warning was issued and many Florida residents got supplies. However, the hurricane mad a sudden right turn and started to head north. Charles Pierce, a young forecaster, told his superiors that because of two high pressure systems in unusual locations, the hurricane would smash right into the northeast coast, mainly Long Island and southern New England. They laughed at him and said it was just going to veer right out to sea and die there. That was their mistake. The hurricane made landfall in Long Island on September 21, 1938, at 2:30 p.m, at high tide and the night of a full moon, making the ocean waters very high. It caused severe damage and an enormous amount of deaths. It went straight through Long Island and southern New England, causing most of its damage there. It then made its way into northern New England and Canada, but had lost its intensity. It finally died out over Canada that night. Overall, wind speed average at 120 mph, and wind gusts topping out at 186 mph. The storm surge (sea-level rise during a storm) was 12-15 ft high, on top of the already high sea levels, and wave heights reaching 50 feet. This deadly storm took 700 lives, 600 being from the regions talked about above, and caused 3.06 million 1938 dollars in damage (today about 18 billion).

Heat-Wave of 2011

The Heat wave of the summer of 2011 struck the majority of North America for the months of July through August. This was the the deadliest heat wave to hit North america since 1936. With heat index readings towards 131 degrees Fahrenheit, this heat wave was responsible for at least 25 deaths in July of that year alone. High temperatures coupled with an extreme drought made for some of the hottest days ever recorded in 85 years in places like Texas and Oklahoma. Starting in mid United States and then spreading eastward. This heatwave affected the mid-west U.S. to the eastern coast and upwards into eastern Canada.

Luke Howard

Luke Howard was born in London in 1772 he lived 92 years and died in 1864 in Tottenham. When he was 8 his father sends him on one of the best boarding school in the United kingdom Buford Oxfordshire. In that school, he learns a lot of Latin language and a lot of math.In 1798 he went to a partnership whit William Allen, one successful pharmacist.Howard was a newer trained meteorologist or scientist but for more than 30 years he maintained a record of accurate thermometer and barometer readings and visual observation. Luke Howard was called the father of methodology because he does that in the London area from 1801 to 1841. He publishes his Essay on the Modification of Clouds in1803, he named three main types of clouds(cumulus, stratus, cirrus)

Clouds are made of water droplets or ice crystals that are small and light they are able to stay in the air.

The high of a clause in the atmosphere is recorded in three-level : low level(0-8000feet)

                                                                                                          Mid-level(8000-20000feet)

                                                                                                          High level(higher than 20000feet)